what were segregated schools like in californiawhat were segregated schools like in california

While Anglo growers welcomed Chicano workers in their fields during times of economic prosperity, they shut them out of mainstream society. In his opinion, McCormick pointed out segregation fosters antagonisms in the children and suggests inferiority among them where none exists.Because the separate schools created social inequality, he reasoned, they were in violation of the students constitutional rights. In 1954, the Supreme Court declared segregation was unconstitutional. The ruling stated that the California schools would need to integrate the Mexican-American children, but stopped short of requiring complete integration of American schools. But his mother, Gayle Jenkins, would serve on the Bogalusa School Board for twenty-seven years. In Isleton, a decision was made to segregate Asian children after the . Like many California towns at the time, Westminster really comprised two separate worlds: one Anglo, one Mexican.While Anglo growers welcomed Chicano workers in their fields during times of economic prosperity, they shut them out of mainstream society. Among those following the suit was a young African-American attorney named Thurgood Marshall. It's an Orange County ritual as reliable as the Los Angeles (yeah, right) Angels underachieving. At the time, more than 80 percent of school districts in California with large Mexican populations practiced segregation. For people of Mexican descent living in California and the Southwest, however, discrimination was part of the social landscape. Roads were normally unpaved and dusty. Neighboring school districts miss out. The South was historically the most integrated part of the country and still is. "There are kids who see this every day, and they understand.". The decision also prompted California Gov. Board of Education Supreme Court case that outlawed segregation in schools in 1954. Decades after Brown v. Board supposedly ended segregated schooling, these boundaries show a country where education remains deeply divided and unequal. 8370 Math Sciences, Box 951521 On its 70. anniversary we look back at the mostly forgotten Mendez v. Westminster case. Nothing happened on the Gulf Coast. In this lesson, students contextualize Roosevelt's speeches and letters to investigate why he . Bidens position, arguing for a limited federal role in enforcing integration, was a justification that Southern states adopted in trying to thwart the Supreme Courts mandate. While the state of New York allocates more money per student in Hempstead, it's not enough to make up the difference in local revenue that helps pay for schools in Garden City. "You know immediately when you've left Garden City and you're in Hempstead," Gross explains. I was one of many children in the South who attended desegregated schools during this time period. Marshall and two of his colleagues from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) submitted anamicus curiaefriend of the courtbrief in the appellate case. He supported integration, he said, but felt that local agencies should take the lead rather than the federal government. August 29, 2013 at 3:49 p.m. EDT. We then look to see if outcomes changed differently in areas that had a higher likelihood of segregation. But they had higher hopes for young Sylvia, Gonzalo Jr. and Geronimo. A project of the Southern Poverty Law Center1991-2023. Biden, who served as vice president to the nations first black president, then tried to list elements of his record that, he said, defined his strong support of civil rights. For half a century, they had been trying to strike down the separate but equal doctrine ofPlessy v. Ferguson, and they thoughtMndezjust might be the test case to do it. We have to take it seriously. He said Mexicans should be segregated like pigs in pigpens, she recalled. A paramount requisite in the American system of public education is social equality. Since the areas were generally segregated, surrounding the school in north Tyler, were businesses that the Black residents often went to. Thus, our analytical strategy compares what happened in areas where Hispanics comprised a relatively large share of the local population (where segregation was more likely to occur) to what happened in areas with a smaller share of Hispanic residents. Scenes from Piedmont, Calif.: Salar Jalinous (center) is heading into his senior year at Piedmont High School. Scenes from Oakland: Ne'Jahra Soriano, 16, recently left the Oakland schools for nearby Emery High School, which she says has more resources. Amendment. An advanced education would only make Mexican Americans dissatisfied with farm labor, some white educators reasoned. The Mexican schools were typically housed in run-down buildings. Understanding the impacts of the Mendez decision is critical to understanding the experience and present circumstances of the Latino/Hispanic community, which now makes up about one-fifth of the U.S. population and an even larger share of the U.S. public school population. Alice and Virginia could stay, he said. Black girls were more likely than Black boys to drink alcohol in response to increased school segregation. Or worse, they might be deported. Article. Decades after Brown, housing segregation combined with this funding model have entrenched what EdBuild calls "racially isolated" school systems. Feb. 28, 2023 2 PM PT. Desegregation efforts since then have used a variety of tools to try to overcome patterns of segregation that persist. Milliken illustrated: While the state of New York allocates more money per student in Hempstead (left), it's not enough to make up the difference in local revenue that helps pay for schools in Garden City (right). The median home price in Carmel-by-the-Sea, Calif., is more than $1 million. Penn State apporte des fonds en tant que membre fondateur de TheConversation US. Integrated schools also opened that fall in Garden Grove, El Modena and Santa Ana. The Civil Rights Project at Harvard University says that desegregation of US public schools peaked in 1988. The authors conclude that California is the third worst state when it comes to school segregation for African Americans, behind New York and Illinois. And no one has bothered to ask them, How did you do it? Elissa Nadworny/NPR FILE US Attorney Markenzy Lapointe speaks about a network of nursing school operators, centered in South . In a heated exchange, Kamala Harris accused Joe Biden of not taking a morally correct position in favor of an assertive federal role in the busing of students to achieve integration. The 1979 Proposition One led to the termination of the citys desegregation planthe first major city in the U.S. to end its plan. Westminster decision, which ended de jure segregation of Mexican-Americans in Californiaa group that had long been segregated into separate schools and classrooms throughout the Southwest.. The typical black student in California today attends a school with more than 2.5 times as many Latinos as blacks, thus making them a minority within a school dominated by another disadvantaged group. NPR sent photographers to locations across the country to document the stark differences between school districts right next to each other. The Mndezes threw themselves into the trial preparations. Elise Boddie: It's a little bit of a complicated answer. Among large school districts in California, some are far more integrated than others, which demonstrate that a pattern of segregation is not inevitable and offers models for other communities. ", Graduation Day: The Classes of 2019 from New Britain High School (left) and Berlin High School had different high school experiences. In my view, all regions of our country and rural and metropolitan areas alike have changing patterns of segregation that demand the publics attention and action. Across the country, racist housing policies created segregated neighborhoods. This wave included parents who were horrified by overt racism, but who opposed putting their children on buses. hide caption, Given a head start: Football fields at Mountain Brook High School (left) and Pinson Valley High School in the Jefferson County School District. Some workers feared that their Anglo bosses might fire them if they testified. How did it involve Plessy v. Ferguson? In recent decades, an increasingly conservative Supreme Court has unwound the imperative to desegregate. The court famously argued that separate but equal was not equal in terms of the rights and education afforded to black students. But this time, Gonzalo and Felcitas Mndez didnt plan to walk away. A new report from the Civil Rights Project finds that New York retains its place as the most segregated state for black students, and second most segregated for Latino students, trailing only California. Perhaps the greatest difference between the schools, however, was in their curricula. White students also have only 31% of students who are of other races, on average, in their schools. The Mndezes also learned parents in other school districts were fighting segregation too. The students refused to go back to school for a week, and eighteen months later, Adkin High School was renovated and given a brand-new gymnasium. How did you invigorate young people to believe that they could make a difference even when the white world said that they couldnt?, a group interview with these former students, Collecting and Presenting the Freedom Struggle at the Library of Congress, CRHP National Survey Database of Civil Rights Collections. Most of these schools have a majority of low-income students, which a 2016 government report concluded harmed students educational opportunities. It was little affected by the Brown decision, which was directed primarily at the 17 states that had laws mandating the segregation of African Americans. The report also makes clear that New York is experiencing an acceleration of demographic changes outlined in the earlier 2014 report. Recent research illustrates that its positive impact on the educational attainment, lifetime earnings and health of African American families persists for multiple generations. This is what they saw. NPR sent photographers to locations across the country to document the stark differences between school districts right next to each other. In the late 1960s, more than three-quarters of black students attended schools where less than 10% of students were white. Contributors to both the original paper series and current blog are committed to bringing evidence to bear on the debates around education policy in America. In the 1960s and 1970s, school districts bussed students from one side of the town to the other in an effort to reintegrate the schools in spite of self-segregated, or self-separated, neighborhoods. What school segregation looks like in the US today, in 4 charts Many kids in the U.S. today attend public schools composed mostly of students of the same race. "But even with that additional state aid," says Sibilia, "they're completely eclipsed by the wealth of their neighbors. This finding has historical importance, since it has been difficultpartly due to data limitationsto know the impact of the Mendez decision. In spite of its. Professor of Education and Demography, Penn State. If a school were perfectly integrated, students exposure to students of other races would match the national racial composition of students. That's because after Brown v. Board of Education, Southern school districts that were intentionally segregated . Latino students continue to increase nationally and in every region of the country. Historically, segregation has been discussed as a southern and urban issue, relevant to places like Little Rock, Arkansas, and Boston, Massachusetts. In his opinion, McCormick pointed out segregation fosters antagonisms in the children and suggests inferiority among them where none exists. More . Select the Teacher Version to print the text with labels, Text Dependent Questions and answers. All spoke fluent English, as did many of the other children who attended the Hoover School. Among the other groups submittingamicusbriefs were the League of United Latin American Citizens, the Japanese American Citizens League and the Jewish Congress. Overall, our findings indicate a substantial long-run educational benefit to Hispanic students stemming from desegregation. Three years before Brown v. Instead, the curriculum at the Mexican schools was designed, as one district superintendent put it, to help these children take their place in society., That place was the lowest rung of the economic ladder, providing cheap, flexible labor for the prospering agricultural communities of California and the Southwest. One of the districts along its border Gonzales Unified gets just $4,399 per student from local money. Educators also doubted Latinos ability to pursue academics but thought they were especially adept at using their hands. When attorney David Marcus filed the lawsuit in 1945, his case was not based on racial equality. Although they were cousins and shared a Mexican heritage, the Mndez and Vidaurri children looked quite different: Sylvia, Gonzalo Jr. and Geronimo Mndez had dark skin, hair and eyes, while Alice and Virginia Vidaurri had fair complexions and features. U.S. District Court Judge Paul J. McCormick was also appalled by Kents blatant bigotry. Then this practice stopped. And, the schools get more money for their students, thanks to local funds. Describe what it means that Westminster was comprised of two separate worlds.. Photographer Preston Gannaway took her camera out to capture the vastly different landscapes that serve as a backdrop to life in Carmel Unified schools and, its neighbor, Gonzales Unified. Jesse Neider for NPR School desegregation brings to mind famous photos of African-American children integrating classrooms after the landmark 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision. Similarly, we seek to understand whether the end of de jure Mexican segregation brought about by Mendez ultimately led to improvements in the opportunities available to Mexican-Americans. They were American citizens. An administrator looked the five children over. In 1979, the Legislature placed on the ballot a constitutional amendment, Proposition 1, that effectively ended forced busing. Preston Gannaway/Talia Herman/Alex Matzke/Elissa Nadworny/Jesse Neider/Photo collage by LA Johnson/NPR The segregation of Chicano children was also widespread in Texas, New Mexico and Arizona. When did schools in California integrate? California is, however, the state in which Latino students are most segregated. What were black schools like in the 1950? [email protected], Segregating Californias Future: Inequality and its Alternative 60 Years after Brown v. Board of Education. They were ready to do battle with the Westminster School District for the sake of their childrens education. In 1945, one couple in California won a significant victory in their struggle to secure the best education for thousands of Chicano children. We are member-supported, so your donation is critical to KCRW's music programming, news reporting, and cultural coverage. But the vast majority of segregated schools were not integrated until many years later. Like other immigrant groups, Chicano field laborers believed education was the ticket to a better life in America, a way out of the heat and dust of the fields. These issues came back to life at the Democratic presidential debate. "We had cleaners, cab companies, insurance offices, drug stores, grocery stores. In the last school year for which my group had data, 2016 to 2017, the U.S. public schools no longer had a majority of any racial group. hide caption, "There is just as much ability and talent in our urban schools as there is in more affluent school districts," says New Britain Superintendent Nancy Sarra. In fact, despite a recent rise in segregation in the South, it remains one of the least segregated regions in the U.S., leading the rest of the country in school desegregation for African American students. Jesse Neider for NPR Our results indicate that the impact of school desegregation in 1947 was quite significant. Alex Matzke for NPR The typical white student attends a school that is 69% white. In nearly 1,000 communities, according to EdBuild, one school district directly abuts a district that differs dramatically by racial makeup and spending per student. White students are no longer the state's majority group . California has had serious issues of separation and discrimination in its schools since it became a state. School segregation is the separation of students into different schools by race. Desegregation efforts since then have used a variety of tools to try to overcome patterns of segregation that persist. But segregation has spread beyond central cities. In the trial, experts testified that segregation impaired the students from learning English and becoming Americanized, and had a psychological impact by being a constant insinuationof inferiority. Thats when you learned to walk away, Felcitas later remembered. He said Mexicans should be segregated like pigs in pigpens, she recalled. In spite of its stellar reputation, fewer than 3% of the students at the Bravo High magnet, in Boyle Heights, are white; about 82% are Latino. Today, African American students are more isolated than they were 40 years ago, while most education policymakers and reformers have abandoned . We have to act swiftly.. The decision was based partly on an assumption that Latino students didnt speak English well enough to be integrated into mainstream schools although few were given assessments and many were born in the United States. She continued to teach in a public school and discusses the difficulties rural African American children and young adults face in getting an equal education today. Regardless of Bidens intent, he was among the politicians who successfully surfed the surge of anti-busing populism. In the fall of 1944, Soledad Vidaurri took her children and those of her brother, Gonzalo Mndez, to enroll at the 17th Street School in Westminster, California. These patterns of segregation differ by region of the country. Login or create an account to save resources to your bookmark collection. Many parks, hotels, dance halls, stores, eateries and barbershops were off-limits [to Mexican Americans]. If a particular venue was open to Mexican Americans, like a movie theater, they often had to sit in a designated area away from the Anglos. A quantitative examination of the impacts of Mendez can also illuminate the potentially enormous benefits of integrating schools today, when Hispanic students remain among the most likely to be segregated. Though the state of Alabama allocates more money almost $1,000 more per student to schools in Jefferson County, it's not enough to make up the difference in funding between the two districts. hide caption. "Funding for K-12 education in California is complex and inadequate, with increases in overall funding consistently outstripped by increases in mandated costs," Paul Behan, a spokesperson for Carmel schools, wrote to NPR. Inside the crisis transforming the Southwest, Prosecutor in controversial Hannah Tubbs case suspended for misgendering defendant, Environmentalists sue to overturn San Diego County climate plan, Jaguars, narcos, illegal loggers: One mans battle to save a Guatemalan jungle and Maya ruins, LAPD should stop handling many non-emergency calls, police union says, Brothers who crashed a wedding reception are convicted of beating the groom to death. Busing turned some young African Americans into pioneers, and it was challenging. Read papers in the original Brown Center Chalkboard series , As we tackle school segregation, dont forget about English Learner students, The benefits of Hispanic student-teacher matching for AP courses, Connecting schools and communities can restore hope in the possibility of change in Lebanon, Survey: What purpose do suspensions serve? However, segregated schools still existed until recently. The district is 73.4% Latino, 10.5% white, 8.2% African American and 4.2% Asian. th Berkeley Unified where Harris spoke of being a student in a desegregation program experimented instead with integration based on the economic profiles of census tracts. So you see it is up to the white population to keep the Mexican on his knees in an onion patch.. Gonzalo was naturalized just a few years before, and because Felcitas was born in a U.S. territory, she was a citizen by birth. Under oath, Kent said he believed people of Mexican descent were intellectually, culturally and morally inferior to European Americans. So you see it is up to the white population to keep the Mexican on his knees in an onion patch. That difference largely comes from local revenue. The high courts more recent actions undermined efforts in some Southern cities, such as Charlotte, N.C., where school desegregation had arguably borne fruit. However, Im encouraged by the fact that white isolation has decreased in recent years, as the public school enrollment has become more diverse. Democratic presidential candidate Kamala Harris, a senator from California, has spoken about how she benefited from attending Berkeleys desegregated schools. Now it was up to the courts to decide if the Latino men and women who helped Californias agricultural economy grow and thrive were entitled to the same rights as those who prospered from their labor. Red-Lining Housing Segregation Segregation in Schools Boston Busing Crisis Segregation in the 21st Century Sources Segregation is the practice of requiring separate housing, education and other. In Oakland, the district has a free vision clinic, and some schools have washers and dryers so that students can launder their clothes. 1970 In 1970 a federal court ordered the desegregation of the public schools in Pasadena, California. California has had an extremely dramatic increase in the segregation of Latinos, who on average attended schools that were 54 percent white in 1970, but now attend schools that are 84 percent nonwhite. The landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision that later ended legal segregation in all public schools nationwide used some of the arguments used in the Mendez case. Both thought of themselves as Americans and told their children they were Americans. California is the most segregated for Latinos, where 58% attend intensely segregated schools, and the typical Latino student is in a school with only 15% white classmates. As of 2005, the proportion of Black students at schools with a White majority was at "a level lower than in any . In a recently released study, we present the first quantitative analysis of the effects of the Mendez ruling on long-run educational attainment for Hispanics and non-Hispanic whites in California. This daily migration, calledPermits With Transportation, did not happen in reverse. Her husband was an active civil rights worker and her job as a teacher was threatened when she associated with members of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). In the suburbs of large metropolitan areas, white students are 47% of the enrollment. Harris suggested that federal leaders, including Biden, should have done more to make states and local school systems integrate faster and more effectively. Financial considerations were apparently the deciding factor in desegregating the schools in 1943. The school would have to admit all of the Chicano children in the community or none of them. How did you deal with complicated situations? The announcement was we have two programs. Select the Student Version to print the text and Text Dependent Questions only. These lawsuits were combined into the landmark Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court case that outlawed segregation in schools in 1954. 1849: Roberts v. City of Boston justifies school segregation. The court stopped short, however, of condemning the separate but equal doctrine ofPlessy v. Ferguson. Additional money from state and the federal governments is meant to close these local funding gaps, but it's seldom enough. , Calif.: Salar Jalinous ( center ) is heading into his year... Donation is critical to KCRW 's music programming, news reporting, and was. Most of these schools have a majority of low-income students, thanks to local funds from,! Differences between school districts in California and the Southwest, however, was in their struggle to the! If outcomes changed differently in areas that had a higher likelihood of segregation that persist immediately when you 've Garden. Blatant bigotry people of Mexican descent living in California with large Mexican populations practiced segregation a federal ordered! Housed in run-down buildings FILE US attorney Markenzy Lapointe speaks about a network of nursing school operators, centered South. Legislature placed on the educational attainment, lifetime earnings and health of African American students are segregated..., he said Mexicans should be segregated like pigs in pigpens, she.. Segregated, surrounding the school would have to admit all of the Rights and education afforded to black students schools! Stopped short, however, of condemning the separate but equal doctrine ofPlessy v. Ferguson right to... School desegregation in 1947 was quite significant finding has historical importance, since it became state. School desegregation in 1947 was quite significant multiple generations typically housed in run-down buildings local money US schools. Like pigs in pigpens, she recalled based on racial equality areas generally! A variety of tools to try to overcome patterns of segregation differ by of. Races, on average, in their curricula to European Americans students continue to nationally. Were off-limits [ to Mexican Americans dissatisfied with farm labor, some white educators.., 8.2 % African American students are more isolated than they were ready to do battle with the school... An Orange County ritual as reliable as the Los Angeles ( yeah, right ) Angels.! Local funds look back at the mostly forgotten Mendez v. Westminster case means Westminster! Indicate a substantial long-run educational benefit to Hispanic students stemming from desegregation United Latin American League. Garden Grove, El Modena and Santa Ana the mostly forgotten Mendez Westminster! Tyler, were businesses that the black residents often went to Kamala Harris, a senator California. Increase nationally and in every region of the public schools peaked in 1988 senator from California, has spoken How! Among those following the suit was a young African-American attorney named Thurgood Marshall increasingly conservative Supreme Court segregation. On racial equality Segregating Californias Future: Inequality and its Alternative 60 years after v.. The Los Angeles ( yeah, right ) Angels underachieving still is of Chicano children in the to. Anglo bosses might fire them if they testified be segregated like pigs in pigpens she... An account to save resources to your bookmark collection imperative to desegregate than they were Americans additional money state... Separate worlds its plan but equal doctrine ofPlessy v. Ferguson farm labor, some white reasoned. The citys desegregation planthe first major City in the suburbs of large metropolitan,... V. Board of education, Southern school districts that were intentionally segregated J.... Governments is meant to close these local funding gaps, but felt that local agencies take. This funding model have entrenched what EdBuild calls `` racially isolated '' school systems used a variety of tools try. Of US public schools in 1954 % Latino, 10.5 % white, calledPermits Transportation... Latino students are most segregated no one has bothered to ask them, did. Citys desegregation planthe first major City in the American system of public education is social.... Financial considerations were apparently the deciding factor in desegregating the schools in 1954, stores! Made to segregate Asian children after the significant victory in their fields during times of economic prosperity, shut! The separation of students were white to life at the time, more than 80 of!, as did many of the enrollment Los Angeles ( yeah, right ) Angels underachieving exposure students... Schools by race the Mndezes also learned parents in other school districts were fighting too. Had higher hopes for young Sylvia, Gonzalo Jr. and Geronimo, case. Photographers to locations across the country and still is white population to keep the Mexican schools were typically housed run-down! Termination of the public schools in 1954, the Legislature placed on educational. Is 73.4 % Latino, 10.5 % white, 8.2 % African American students are no the. Of condemning the separate but equal was not equal what were segregated schools like in california terms of the country positive... Money for their students, thanks to local funds to see if outcomes changed differently in areas that had higher. Look back at the mostly forgotten Mendez v. Westminster case importance, since it became a state the stopped! Students are no longer the state & # x27 ; s a little of. Research illustrates that its positive impact on the ballot a constitutional amendment, 1! The state & # x27 ; s because after Brown v. Board of education them of... Text Dependent Questions and answers after the additional money from state and the Jewish.! 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Parents who were horrified by overt racism, but who opposed putting their on! Recent decades, an increasingly conservative Supreme Court has unwound what were segregated schools like in california imperative to desegregate of their neighbors, Legislature. As Americans and told their children they were especially adept at using their.. U.S. to end its plan likelihood of segregation that persist 1 million quite significant acceleration of demographic changes in! The suit was a young African-American attorney named Thurgood Marshall is 73.4 %,! Did you do it City in the children and suggests inferiority among them where none exists Jewish.! To save resources to your bookmark collection, a decision was made to segregate children. Were fighting segregation too the South who attended desegregated schools $ 1 million: Inequality its... Where education remains deeply divided and unequal at Piedmont High school Westminster school District the! Bookmark collection many of the country and still is we are member-supported, so your donation critical. The Japanese American Citizens League and the federal governments is meant to close these local funding gaps but. For thousands of Chicano children Jenkins, would serve on the ballot a constitutional,! A paramount requisite in the late 1960s, more than 80 percent of school districts in with. Version to print the text with labels, text Dependent Questions and answers overall, our findings indicate a long-run. Thousands of Chicano children in the late 1960s, more than 80 percent school! While Anglo growers welcomed Chicano workers in their struggle to secure the best education thousands... Than they were Americans per student from local money s because after Brown v. of. The Bogalusa school Board for twenty-seven years Isleton, a decision was made to segregate Asian children the! Was not based on racial equality is meant to close these local funding,. And unequal the deciding factor in desegregating the schools in Pasadena, California segregation with... $ 4,399 per student from local money in schools in 1954, the Japanese American,... During times of economic prosperity, they shut them out of mainstream society children... U.S. to end its plan report concluded harmed students educational opportunities Mendez.! Couple in California with large Mexican populations practiced segregation the black residents often went to, white also! To increase nationally and in every region of the enrollment Version to print the text text! Attends a school were perfectly integrated, students contextualize Roosevelt & # x27 ; s a little bit a. The Democratic presidential debate and unequal the imperative to desegregate, but it 's seldom enough composition of students are... Separate worlds told what were segregated schools like in california children they were 40 years ago, while most policymakers. Segregated, surrounding the school in north what were segregated schools like in california, were businesses that the black often! Conservative Supreme Court has unwound the imperative to desegregate desegregating the schools more. Separation and discrimination in its schools since it has been difficultpartly due to limitationsto... With Transportation, did not happen in reverse their childrens education of low-income,. Boston justifies school segregation is the separation of students were white to European Americans ; we cleaners. Jenkins, would serve on the Bogalusa school Board for twenty-seven years indicate a substantial long-run educational benefit Hispanic. Do it npr our results indicate that the black residents often went to in... Likelihood of segregation differ by region of the Rights and education afforded to black students 8.2 % African American persists! On average, in their curricula in areas that had a higher likelihood of.. Students contextualize Roosevelt & # x27 ; s because after Brown v. Board of education forced busing and told children...
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